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Date: Fri, 11 May 2001 10:54:14 -0700
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From: Lori Pottinger <lori@irn.org>
Subject: Are dams damning Southern African development?/LS
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Are dams damning Southern African development?
Irma Venter
Engineering News  April 20-26
Staff Writer,

News cameras telling the world tales of frightened masses fleeing floodwater
in Zimbabwe, Zambia and Mozambique not only stirred compassion for these
African nations being so abruptly halted in their attempts to achieve some
kind of economic growth, but also stimulated the great dam debate.
In its most simple form the question is whether dams affect the lives of
those surrounding them, and, at what some people deem to be most
sensationalist, whether human-made dams actually cause floods.
Leading the debate, in what he says is an attempt to stimulate conversation
on the issue, is associate professor of zoology and cofounder and
past-director of the Freshwater Research Unit at the University of Cape
Town, Bryan Davies.
In essence, he blames years of bad dam management for causing many of the
recent flood disasters.
He explains that all the major dams on the Zambezi river, such as Cahora
Bassa in Mozambique and Kariba between Zambia and Zimbabwe, are
single-purpose hydropower systems. They store summer rainfall for winter
power generation and, since the drought of the 1980s, have consistently
failed to decrease their levels in a controlled, consistent manner to be
able to store relatively predictable successive summer floods, says Davies.
This leaves the dams with high volumes when floods occur, forcing the
opening of sluice gates into already-flooded rivers, exacerbating the peril
to the people downstream.
Davies is quite vocal about Kariba and Cahora Bassa being the main
culprits - especially on the level of not simulating seasonal floods.
This lack of simulation, since Kariba (47 years old) and Cahora Bassa (26
years old) were built, has forced a change in the settlement patterns and
subsistence farming activities of the people of the lower Zambezi.
"Original recommendations for simulated seasonal flows, both dry-season
levels and safe-flood-season levels have been consistently ignored by the
engineers in charge of Cahora Bassa," claims Davies.
He says the engineers involved operate on the assumption that no floods are
good for the people - but the absence of floods over 25 years has placed the
rural floodplain people in danger, for they now live where they would not
have done so prior to the existence of the dams. This places them in the
most dangerous areas, should natural floods then occur.
This phenomenon occurs everywhere in the world where indigenous peoples once
practised floodplain recession agriculture, and where large dams have
changed settlement habits and patterns, such as in Nigeria, Burkina Faso,
Senegal, Tanzania, Kenya, Bangladesh, Vietnam and China, reports Davies.
California Institute of Technology Professor of Anthropology (emeritus)
Thayer Scudder was a research officer of the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute in
Zambia who, with his University of Berkeley, California, Professor (emerita)
colleague, Elizabeth Colson, started a study of the Kariba resettlement in
1956 when 57 000 people were relocated before Kariba was constructed.
Scudder says the way Kariba and Cahora Bassa are operated "definitely"
increases flood risk and flood damage to the area.
Both dams are single-purpose dams that are operated to literally maximise
the output of electricity, which means that, unlike multipurpose dams
elsewhere, reservoir levels are not drawn down adequately prior to the
advent of the rainy season for flood-management purposes, Scudder and Davies
agree.
Scudder adds that, at least in the case of Kariba in February last year,
downstream populations were not warned before various gates were opened,
leading to thousands of Zambian farmers in Chief Chipepo's and Chief
Chiawa's areas losing their floodplain crops, which are normally harvested
in March.
This led to a state of famine in the area.
"Such a situation is unacceptable," explains Scudder. He says more a problem
in Mozambique than in Zambia is the post-dam-construction movement of people
closer to the Zambezi's primary channel and even on to islands, on the
assumption that building on such flood plains is safe.
But, looking at Kariba and Cahora Bassa as examples, the way they are
operated increases both flood risk and flood damage that riverine
communities along the Zambezi were able to avoid in the past by building
their villages above maximum flood levels.
This is a global problem, states Scudder.
In the face of all of these statements, Engineering News attempted to
contact the Zambezi River Water Authority (ZRA) which owns and operates the
Kariba dam, only for CE Mike Tumbare to refuse any comment.
Reports in the Zambian media during the floods, though, much reiterate the
thesis that mismanagement somehow contributed to the flood damage.
The Times of Zambia reported during the time of the floods that the
country's experts in energy and water management say the flooding in Zambia
"could have been easily avoided if the ZRA had consulted widely before
opening the spillway gates".
It argues that one spillway gate could have been opened much earlier and for
a longer period to maintain safe water levels.
Zimbabwe-based non-governmental organisation, the Zambezi Society - with the
aim of promoting conversation on environmentally-sound use of the Zambezi
basin for the benefit of its biological and human communities - also
reiterates that the recent flooding highlighted the need for a more
co-ordinated approach to regional river management.
Public relations officer Sally Wynn emphasises the need for dams simulating
seasonal flood cycles, especially because of biological reasons.
These reasons are underlined in a research report released early this month,
published jointly by the Biodiversity Foundation for Africa, and the Zambezi
Society (ZS).
This report recommends that there should occur occasional and significant
flood releases from the Zambezi's network of dams in order to maintain open
habitats, clear clogged channels and flush out accumulated nutrients.
Apparently this will benefit threatened species, such as the Wattled Crane,
which require open habitats or regular flood regimes, explains Wynn.
The society came into existence in 1982 as a small lobby group of
volunteers - now boasting more than a thousand members, and a UK
fund-raising branch.
Nineteen years ago the ZS started out with successfully fighting the
proposed damming of the Zambezi river at Mupata Gorge, which would have
resulted in the flooding of what is now tourist attraction and World
Heritage Site, the Mana Pools.
South African Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (Dwaf)
director-general Mike Muller says dams do not cause floods but, in fact,
reduce them by storing floodwater that would, otherwise, immediately flow
downstream.
During a flood on a river, the total flow into a dam is invariably more than
the outflow, thereby reducing the flood volume.
He explains that the main problem in Southern Africa in the dam debate are
misperceptions, resulting from ignorance or deliberate exaggeration, which
appears to be based on the unfounded speculation of social and environmental
scientists thousands of kilometres away from the scene.
Muller then points to what he calls reliable sources, such as Dr Joseph
Hanlon and Frances Christie, authors of a recent United Nations-commissioned
book on the Mozambican floods of last year, which confirmed that the effect
of the recent floods in the Zambezi was reduced, rather than aggravated by
the operation of the dams.
However, Muller agrees with Davies and Scudder when he says that, because
dams provide some protection against moderate floods, they may change the
behaviour of people living on floodplains, drawing them into the area and
putting them at greater risk from major floods, from which dams do not
create a sufficient buffer.
He adds, though, that the issue has been much sensationalised to suggest
that dams cause floods.
"This undermines the dialogue needed to improve water management where, as
in any human endeavour, there is always room for improvement," he comments.
Muller argues strongly for the necessity of dams.
"In the absence of dams, it would not be possible to provide the water
needed for social and economic development as well as the
environmentally-desirable flows in our rivers - if there were no dams, 90%
of Gauteng's economic and social activity would have to stop.
"Dams should, thus, be recognised as important instruments in our efforts to
protect the environment, while supporting justifiable social and economic
development," he reports.
Scudder emphasises yet another issue surrounding dams when he refers to
Colson and himself who have spent over 45 years in studying the impact of
dams.
He says a chief effect of resettlement on the large majority of those
involved in the resettlement at Kariba has been impoverishment.
Another problem is the downstream effect of large and mainstream dams - as
he believes such consequences to people and ecosystems to be far more
serious than previously realised - even to the extent that, if they were
built into pre-dam construction studies, an unknown proportion of mainstream
dams would not have been considered cost effective.
Unfortunately, this is especially the case in the tropics and subtropics -
thereby including a large part of Southern Africa.
Scudder explains that the livelihood of millions of people living along
rivers is dependent on those rivers' natural flood regimes - because of
their dependence on flood recession agriculture, grazing floodplains at the
end of the dry season and catching the increased fishery productivity that a
natural flood regime creates.
As for ecological effects, some of the damage and changes caused by dams on
deltas, such as the Zambezi, are irreversible.
"A more important, broader question to ask is: under what conditions, if
any, are mainstream dams an acceptable option on tropical and subtropical
rivers?" says Scudder. However, debating this option seems redundant in the
case of existing dams - turning the issue to the proposed solutions to dams
benefiting, rather than harming societies around them.
Dams must sacrifice part of their storages in order to simulate natural dry
and wet-season regimes, so that human settlement patterns are not
jeopardised or altered, says Davies.
He applauds the fact that this type of procedure is now mandated in South
African Law by the New Water Act of 1998, which means dams must be managed
for the ecological system that they control, rather than solely for water
supply, or for hydropower generation.
Scudder says there are two solutions.
The first, in which he agrees with Davies, and which is the one that should
be practised with the Zambezi dams and be seriously considered in all dams,
are environmental-flow releases that simulate natural one to two-year year
flood conditions.
In arid and semi-arid conditions this water cannot be released every year
but, if released six or seven out of every ten years, irreversible damage to
deltas like the Zambezi will be halted, and this water will sustain and even
enhance (in appropriate cases) the livelihood of those millions still
dependent on natural flooding, and discourage people from risky movement on
to flood plains such as has occurred downstream of the Cahora Bassa dam.
The second solution, Scudder insists, is to follow the guidelines of the
World Commission on Dams as to whether a particular dam is indeed the best
option for dealing with water and energy resource development, and whether
another, better solution is not also an option.
"Having studied dams as my major research for 45 years, I definitely believe
that dam construction is an appropriate development option - in some cases,"
Scudder states.
The World Commission on Dams, chaired by the former South African minister
of Water Affairs and Forestry Prof Kader Asmal, and consisting of 12 diverse
commissioners, completed two years of work at the end of last year.
The commission reviewed 947 submissions, conducted detailed reviews of eight
large dams and surveyed a further 125 large dams.
In its guidelines several recommendations were set out, such as that dams
have made an important contribution to human development and the benefits
derived from them have been considerable - but that large dams have
demonstrated a marked tendency towards schedule delays and cost overruns, as
well as often falling short of physical and economic targets, such as
predicted water and electricity services.
Large dams have also led to the loss of forests and wildlife habitat, and
the loss of aquatic biodiversity of upstream and downstream environments.
The commission found that efforts to counter the ecosystem effect of large
dams had met with limited success.
Large dams have also resulted in negative social effects. Mitigation,
compensation and resettlement programmes were often inadequate.
A set of five core-values for future decision-making was recommended by the
commission, namely equity, sustainability, efficiency, participatory
decision-making and accountability.
Seven strategy priorities for water and energy source development were
recognised, namely gaining public acceptance, comprehensive options
assessment, dealing with existing dams, sustaining rivers and livelihoods,
recognising entitlements and sharing benefits, ensuring compliance and
sharing rivers for peace, development and security.
The commission was also the first to admit that there is no illusion that
implementing the report will be easy, and that many agencies and
institutions will take considerable persuading to review water and energy
development policies.
Where does this leave the argument on dams and their role in flooding then?
The commission's answer to the relevance of dams is in quoting former South
African president Nelson Mandela on this issue, saying it is one thing to
find fault with an existing system, but another thing
altogether to replace it with an approach that is better.
It is not so much a question of debating the necessity of dams such as
Cahora Bassa, as they do exist, and have to be dealt with regardless, but of
emphasising the responsible management of these dams.
It is a question of pitting the necessary development of the subSaharan
region and the power generated by dams against the seemingly avoidable
damage that may be caused by the mismanagement of these reserves - damage
wreaking unaffordable economic havoc in developing countries.
?Martin Creamer Media
-- 
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
       Lori Pottinger, Director, Southern Africa Program,
         and Editor, World Rivers Review
            International Rivers Network   <'})))>><
               1847 Berkeley Way, Berkeley, California 94703, USA
                   Tel. (510) 848 1155   Fax (510) 848 1008
	   http://www.irn.org
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